Zambezi River Basin

ZAMBEZI RIVER BASIN ATLAS OF THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC) I Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA) 15 Downie Avenue, Belgravia, Box 5690, Harare, Zimbabwe Tel +263 4 791141 /43 Fax +263 4 791 271 Email imercsa@sardc.net www.sardc.net Knowledge for Development Southern African Development Community (SADC) Water Division SADC Secretariat, SADC House, Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, Botswana Tel +267 395 1863 Fax +267 397 2848 /318 1070 Email registry@sadc.int www.sadc.int A Shared Future within a Regional Community Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) Interim Secretariat, Block C, Fairgrounds Office Park, P.O. Box 45169, Gaborone, Botswana Tel +267 365 6660 Fax +267 390 9368 Email zamcom@zambezicommission.org www.zambezicommission.org

GRID-Arendal Teaterplassen 3 N-4836 Arendal, Norway Tel +47 764 4555 Fax +47 370 3505 Email grid@grida.no www.grida.no

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Division of EarlyWarning and Assessment (DEWA) P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Tel +254 20 623 562 Fax +254 20 623 944 E-mail Africa.Coordinator@unep.org www.unep.org

© SARDC, SADC, ZAMCOM, GRID-Arendal, UNEP 2012

ISBN: 978-0-7974-5010-3

This book is accessible online through GRID-Arendal www.grida.no with links to the Virtual Library for Southern Africa www.sardc.net (Knowledge for Development) as well as www.sadc.int, www.zambezicommission.org and www.unep.org

All rights reserved. The contents of this book may be quoted with due credit to the authors and publishing partners, but may not be reproduced, all or in part, without permission from the copyright holders.

Citation: SADC/SARDC and others 2012. Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment. SADC, SARDC, ZAMCOM, GRID-Arendal, UNEP. Gaborone, Harare and Arendal

The designation of geographical entities, use of any name in this publication, and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of SADC, ZAMCOM, SARDC, GRID-Arendal or UNEP or concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or area of its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Cover Design by Paul Wade and Tonely Ngwenya

Cover Artwork by Tapfuma Gutsa. Made fromTonga baskets, the front cover depicts the Zambezi river spirit, Nyaminyami, and the back cover image is Mulonga, the river. Related artwork inside is Husha, all fromTapfuma Gutsa’s exhibition titled Mulonga, DeepWaters and Starry Skies

Cartography, design and print by GRID-Arendal, Norway

Contents

Foreword

ii v

Preface

Executive Summary Acknowledgements

vi

viii

Acronyms

ix

1. THE ZAMBEZI RIVER BASIN

2 4

Overview of the Zambezi

Population

10 12 13 16 32 34 36 39 40 44 48 52 53 59 60 62 63 64 66 68 72 72 73 75 76 80 84 88 92 96

Land Cover and Land Use

Biodiversity

Water Resources

2. THE BASIN’S CHANGING ENVIRONMENT The Growing Population and Shrinking Resource Base

Urbanization

Pollution

Mining

Environmental Dynamics

Deforestation

Forest Fires

Freshwater Resources

Wetlands

Invasive Alien Species

Wildlife

Human Health in a Changing Environment

3. THE ZAMBEZI: A SHARED RESOURCE

Ecosystems

Transboundary Conservation Inter-Basin Water Transfers

Energy Resources

Movement of People, Goods and Services

Navigation in the Zambezi Basin

4. TRACKING PROGRESS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Angola

Botswana

Malawi

Mozambique

Namibia Tanzania Zambia

100 104 108 112 114 119 121 122 124 127 128 129 130

Zimbabwe

5. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND PLANNED DEVELOPMENTS

Institutional Arrangements and Policy Planned Developments in the Zambezi Basin

Transport Routes

Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Editorial and Production Workshop Participants Profile of SARDC IMERCSA

Index

i

Foreword

Since the basin is the most shared within the SADC region, the Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment provides a foundation for assessing trend analysis of water resources and environmental issues at a basin level. By providing such analysis the Atlas fulfils two of the objectives of the SADC Regional Water Strategy under data and information acquisition and management which compel the region to: • Provide sustainable water resources data and information systems at national, transboundary and basin levels to meet the needs for effective planning and management of water resources; and • Improve access to data and information for all stakeholders. I am delighted that the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) established under the Revised SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, has come into force as this can unlock many opportunities for implementation of development projects including adaptation strategies to climate change. The prime objective of the ZAMCOM Agreement is “to promote the equitable and reasonable utilization of the water resources of the Zambezi watercourse as well as the efficient management and sustainable development thereof.”The Atlas will therefore provide foundation information for the achievement of this objective. It also provides a basis for implementation of the Zambezi Basin Integrated Water Strategy formulated in 2008 as part of the ZAMCOM agreement. This Atlas comes at a time when issues of water resources and climate change are very critical, requiring sustainable solutions. While our region is characterised by variability of water resources, both in time and space, this is exacerbated by threats posed by the global climate change that renders our available water resources to be stressed as a result of overall changes in the timing and extent of precipitation. Climate change is causing more intense and frequent extreme events such as droughts and floods, thus necessitating coordinated management of our shared watercourses. The Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment is expected to raise awareness among stakeholders and to aide policy makers in making informed decisions as it provides convincing visual and scientific evidence of environmental change on which to build. I believe that this well-illustrated Atlas will heighten interest among policy and decision makers and the public in taking positive steps towards sustainable resource utilisation in the Zambezi River Basin.

The Zambezi is Africa’s fourth largest river basin after the Congo, Nile and Niger, and spreads over eight Member States of SADC: Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, United Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The basin represents the best of what we have in the SADC region in terms of natural capital. Within the basin’s large expanse, there exist many natural resources ranging from water, land and soils, forests and wildlife, and the minerals that are plentiful under the soil. These define our economic activities including, agriculture, forestry, mining, manufacturing and tourism. As these resources are under threat from environmental and climate change we need to find strategies to sustain and protect these resources to meet the needs of current and future generations, as well as replenishing the needs of the natural environment. Access to knowledge is a valuable strategic resource that helps to define and support meaningful strategies to address the threats from environmental changes. As stated by world leaders in their declaration 20 years ago at the Earth Summit in Brazil (Agenda 21), the acquisition and provision of timely, effective information on the state of our natural resources is an important factor to the attainment of sustainable natural resources management. We therefore welcome the production of the Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment, the first of its kind in the Zambezi River Basin and in southern Africa. The Atlas captures environmental changes graphically and pictorially, providing striking and undisputable evidence that can be used as a basis for intervention at local, national and regional levels. Publication of this Atlas is based on the principle that information is key to transformation and that informed action is rooted in the use of sound knowledge. By indicating changes in the basin in an accessible format, this publication provides a basis and a stimulus for taking action at all levels. The Atlas is anchored in the SADC policy frameworks endorsed by the eight riparian states of the Zambezi River Basin. These include the Revised SADC Protocol on SharedWatercourses which fosters close cooperation for judicious, sustainable and coordinated management, protection and utilisation of shared watercourses, and advances the SADC agenda of regional integration and poverty reduction. The SADC Regional Water Policy highlights various opportunities for water management to achieve the SADC goals and objectives; and the SADC Regional Water Strategy promotes the adoption of a basin- wide approach for planning, development and management of water resources.

ii

development in southern Africa through funding this important initiative.

It is also my hope that the contents of this Atlas will provoke ongoing discussions on climate change and variability, and provoke the need to take serious actions in development of resilient strategies. I applaud the SADC Directorate of Infrastructure and Services through the Water Division and its arm, the Zambezi Watercourse Commission Interim Secretariat, working with our longstanding partners, the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC) I Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and UNEP/GRID- Arendal. I want to thank the Government of Norway for their consistent support and for their contribution to sustainable

This process and the publication reflect the spirit of cooperation and partnership that strengthens our efforts to raise the standard of living of people in southern Africa, and achieve SADC’s vision of a shared future within a regional community.

Dr Tomáz Augusto Salomão Executive Secretary, SADC August 2012

iii

still gentle mythical the zambezi river taps offers a cool breeze a narrative in verse and air the breeze will pick you up in rhythmand rhyme

a seductive sensibility woven into the fabric

deconstruction construction skillful resplendent ethereal ripples of water lap your ankles skim the water with your fingers a natural flowwith the river the current gets stronger power of the cascade let it wash over you stand and refresh in all its might and splendor

Poem by Paul Wade, May 2012 Depiction of Nyaminyami, the Zambezi river spirit, by Tapfuma Gutsa from his exhibition Mulonga , DeepWaters and Starry Skies

iv

Preface

in sustainable development by emphasizing the ills of deforestation, land degradation and loss of biodiversity, among others, while also showcasing the benefits of sustainable conservation. For example, the Atlas acknowledges the importance of wildlife corridors as provided by trans-frontier conservation areas in allowing the free movement of wildlife as they search for pasture and water. The Atlas also acknowledges the important role the Zambezi River Basin plays in the integration of the SADC region by being the backbone of hydro-power generation. By visually presenting an in-depth assessment of the scale of change in the state of the environment in the basin, the Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment not only supports policy-making, but also opens up new opportunities for collaborative research. The preparation of the Atlas demonstrates the value of partnerships, with GRID-Arendal and SARDC IMERCSA bringing in their capacity to communicate complex science in a user-friendly way, and with SADC and the Zambezi Watercourse Commission providing the necessary political legitimacy to the process. GRID-Arendal values partnerships in as far as they are mutually beneficial and help leverage each other’s potential. Partners such as SARDC have enabled GRID-Arendal’s products to have a global outreach. It is therefore GRID-Arendal’s wish that such partnerships are not only strengthened but also allowed to be more visible.

The Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment profiles an outstanding and globally important river basin. The massive Zambezi River Basin is a vital resource that holds potential for cooperation of the eight riparian nations in areas of environmental governance, cultural and heritage preservation, and economic development. Aiming to be of value in guiding decision- and policy-making, the Atlas is expected to be an indispensable tool for benchmarking environmentally sustainable development and protection of ecosystem services in the basin. The eight countries sharing the basin – Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe – will benefit from the Atlas through the profiling of the basin’s potential, as well as facilitation of increased cross-border cooperation. The chosen concept and format of an environmental assessment, which uses visual science in defining policy direction should have a positive impact on safeguarding the magnificent landscapes and important ecosystems of the basin. Being the most shared and largest river basin in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), wise management of the Zambezi naturally could provide leadership and an example of success that authorities in other regions of shared river basins could want to replicate. With five major transfrontier conservation areas, the Zambezi River Basin is important in fostering regional cooperation. Such cooperation is significant for the SADC region given the strong economic, cultural and political ties, which are aided by regional policies such as the one-stop border post, uni-visa system for tourists and the SADC protocol on the movement of people and goods.

Dr. Peter Prokosch Managing Director, GRID-Arendal August 2012

The Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment underscores the importance of the environment dimension

v

Executive Summary

socio-economic and environmental impacts are presented, including the impact on human health, agriculture, water resources and biodiversity. Chapter 3 presents six transboundary issues of importance to the Zambezi River Basin: ecosystems and protected areas, water resources, movement of people, movement of pollutants, fire outbreaks, and navigation. The key components that constitute the environment such as plants, animals, weather systems and people do not remain solely within their national boundaries, and thus environmental issues of mutual concern arising from a shared natural area, resource, system, or migratory species become transboundary. Neighbouring countries often face similar problems related to the causes of environmental change in a shared natural area and to the impacts on people and livelihoods. The Zambezi River Basin has for the past years witnessed a drastic change in its natural environment, mainly as a result of climate change, urbanisation and increased demand for agricultural land. These three major forces have caused alarming rates of water pollution in transboundary water resources, high loss of biodiversity and the drying up of valuable wetland ecosystems. All of this impacts on the wellbeing of people, wildlife and their environment. Chapter 4 tracks Goal 7 on Environmental Sustainability, of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), with profiles of the eight riparian states of the Zambezi River Basin. The objective of the Millennium Declaration of 2000 was to promote a comprehensive approach and a coordinated strategy, tackling many problems simultaneously across a broad front, through the MDGs and related targets and indicators. Water resources form the basis of almost every aspect of life in the Zambezi River Basin, including the sustenance of human livelihoods and biodiversity. The resources drive the socio-economic, political and cultural development of the basin’s population. Apart from sustaining a rich diversity, water resources are critical for meeting the basic needs for domestic and industrial requirements, sanitation and waste management, which are among the targets for Goal 7. The need to effectively coordinate and manage water resources has become a top priority in the Zambezi Basin to promote sustainable utilisation of such critical resources. Challenges of integrated and coordinated water resources development, environmental management and sustainable development, climate change adaptation, and the strategies required to address these challenges underline the need for stronger regional cooperation and closer integration in the field of water management. Chapter 5 presents the policies and strategies that have been put in place to promote integrated resource management among the Basin states. A number of initiatives and activities have since been adopted to allow harmonisation, transparency and accountability in the water resource

The Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment is a basin collaborative initiative with the objective of providing scientific evidence about changes that are taking place in the natural resources and the environment. The Atlas, with climate change as its running theme, is for use by policy makers and other stakeholders, and the general public, to generate action towards climate resilience through adaptation and mitigation of the impacts of climate change. The Atlas discusses the impacts that these changes are having on the basin’s people and resources, thus contributing to the documentation and study of the relationship between human populations and the environment. The Zambezi River Basin represents the best of what southern Africa has in terms of shared natural capital. The river and its dense network of tributaries and associated ecosystems constitute one of southern Africa’s most important natural resources. Within the Basin’s large expanse, there are a number of natural resources ranging from water, land and soils, and minerals, to forests and wildlife. The natural capital in the basin defines the economic activities that range from agriculture and forestry, manufacturing and mining, to conservation and tourism, as well as scientific monitoring and research. The Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment contains five chapters. The chapters make use of satellite images, maps, tables, graphs, photographs and illustrative text to present the key issues in the Basin. Chapter 1 presents the biophysical and socioeconomic features of the Zambezi River Basin and sub-basins, and some examples of the rich cultures, stretching across eight countries – Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. As a transboundary resource that is subject to management and use by various sectoral and national interests, the Zambezi Basin is highly prone to overexploitation and unsustainable short gains rather than long-term sustainable development. Climate change coupled with human pressure on resources has resulted in inevitable changes in the Basin’s environment. Environmental change due to both natural and human activities is continuous, and in some cases very dramatic. Chapter 2 presents the socio-economic and environmental changes taking place in the Zambezi River Basin. The causes of these changes are not entirely the result of human activities in the Basin, but are also as a result of activities that have occurred elsewhere in the world, such as large-scale emissions of greenhouse gases leading to climate change. Other causes include increased population pressure on the land and its resources, with associated processes of urbanisation, increased mining and industrial activities, increased deforestation and wildfires. The resultant environmental effects of the local and global changes are presented in this chapter, including temperature rise, and rise in sea level, leading to increased frequency and severity of floods, droughts and cyclones. The associated

vi

sector. However, there is no single focal point to manage the resource. The need to formalise the cooperative framework and further strengthen basin-wide cooperation remains a challenge. Among the policies and strategies for coordination and management is the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM), an agreement signed by most of the Zambezi Basin states in 2004. To date, seven of the eight Basin states have signed the agreement with the exception of Zambia, and six have ratified the agreement. The remaining states have shown commitment to speed up signing and/or ratification. Through the ZAMCOM Agreement, the riparian states of the Zambezi River Basin envisage working together to develop and manage the shared water resources of the vast basin. The agreement is designed to help the riparian states to unlock the potential of the Basin in contributing to the socio-economic development of the Basin states and the region as a whole. The Zambezi River Basin states have established the Interim Secretariat for the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (IZS) hosted by the Government of Botswana in Gaborone. The initial responsibility of the Secretariat is to coordinate and inform the riparian states of the expected steps needing their

support towards the realisation of the ZAMCOM agreement and its vital governance organs. The establishment of the IZS means that the riparian states of the Zambezi Basin have a forum through which they can deliberate and plan the efficient management and development of the river basin resources for the benefit of present and future generations. This Atlas supports initiatives of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) through the Africa Atlas of Our Changing Environment and the Africa Water Atlas, both UNEP-led initiatives, as stated in Decision 8 of the 12 th Session of AMCEN. The project is implemented by the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC) through its environment institute, the I. Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa (IMERCSA), in consultation with the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Water Division, the Interim Secretariat of the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM), and Zambezi River Basin stakeholders. SARDC IMERCSA is the regional collaborating centre for southern Africa for UNEP under the Africa Environment Information Network (AEIN). Technical and financial support was provided by GRID-Arendal.

vii

Acknowledgements

internet version of the Atlas which is available at www.grida. no with links to the Virtual Library for Southern Africa at www. sardc.net (Knowledge for Development) as well as links to www. sadc.int, www.unep.org and www.zambezicommission.org. The partners would like to thank well-known Zimbabwean artist, Tapfuma Gutsa, to use images of his artwork on the cover and opening pages of this Atlas. This gives the Atlas the timeless perspective of Nyaminyami, the spirit of the Zambezi river, whose presence is shown on the front cover; while the back cover image depicts Mulonga, the river itself; and Husha marks the inside Contents pages. These are part of Gutsa’s 2012 exhibition entitled, Mulonga, DeepWaters and Starry Skies. The Atlas was producedwith financial support fromGRID-Arendal and technical backstopping from UNEP as well as from Planet Action who provided GIS software through Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI).We want to thank GRID-Arendal for their patience and creativity in the design process and for printing the final product. To Clever Mafuta, the Africa Coordinator at GRID-Arendal, we acknowledge your spirit of partnership and shared vision as well as your personal commitment to this initiative. Thanks yet again to the pillar of shared water resources in southern Africa, Phera Ramoeli, Senior Programme Officer SADCWater Division, and to Michael Mutale, Executive Secretary of the Interim ZAMCOM Secretariat, both of whom gave us enormous encouragement and an institutional framework of firm support. You know already that your IZS Communications Specialist, Leonissah Munjoma, is second to none. Here we must make another very personal acknowledgement, to Achim Steiner, Executive Director of UNEP, with very special thanks for starting out with us on this journey long ago and staying the course! Phyllis Johnson, the SARDC Executive Director, we thank you for your engagement, thorough technical review and knowledgeable editorial eye that made this Atlas a cut above the rest. The SARDC Programmes Director, Munetsi Madakufamba, who set the tone for the review workshop with this thoughtful opening remarks, and for his support, we thank you. The IMERCSA staff who worked tirelessly to make this product a success, we greatly appreciate your determination and commitment. A detailed list of the Editorial and Production team is found at the back of the Atlas. There are many organisations and individuals who have contributed directly and indirectly to this process. While efforts have been made to acknowledge their input, it may be that not everyone has been credited by name. Please accept this acknowledgement of your role in this important publication.

The Southern African Research and Documentation Centre’s environment institute, the I Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa, is pleased to present the Zambezi River Basin: Atlas of the Changing Environment . The work of many hands, both individuals and institutions, has made this Atlas unique and useful. It is the first such atlas of a single ecosystem in southern Africa, documenting the shared resources and potential for sustainable development as well as environmental impact, and we are rightly proud of the result. SARDC would like to thank the partners in this initiative who are, first and foremost our long-term partners in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the SADC Executive Secretary for his support and the SADCWater Division for partnership, the Interim Secretariat of the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) for having that fine mix of professional skills and people skills, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and especially the Managing Director and staff at GRID-Arendal who provided financial support as well as designing and printing of this fine publication. SARDC IMERCSA is pleased to present this Atlas as an output of its role as the UNEP Collaborating Centre for Southern Africa for environmental reporting, early warning and assessment. The preparation of this Atlas benefited from a network of National Collaborating Centres (NCCs) in the Zambezi River Basin, including the Ministry of Energy, Water and Environment, Angola; Kalahari Conservation Society, Botswana; Coordination Unit for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (CURE), Malawi; ARA Zambeze, Mozambique; Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC), Namibia; Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Department of Water Resources, Tanzania; Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA); and the Environment Management Agency (EMA), Zimbabwe. We want to thank the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) of Uganda for use of their atlas (2009), Uganda: Atlas of Our Changing Environment, as reference for composition and presentation. And we also warmly thank our partners at NEMA for the staff exchange during this process, under the Norwegian FK programme. The preparation of the Atlas started in 2010 with the formation of a consultative group from representatives of the eight Zambezi basin states. Through online consultation with this group and other Zambezi River Basin stakeholders including SADC, and in collaboration with UNEP/GRID-Arendal, SARDC IMERCSA prepared a zero draft of the Zambezi River Basin Atlas of the Changing Environment. A regional review workshop was then convened to identify data gaps and cross check the presented data for other available sources and updates, check on accuracy of facts, identify other significant changes not included in the draft, identify hotspots in the basin, and indicate other planned initiatives not captured in the draft, as well as to obtain wider regional ownership of the process and content of the Atlas. SARDC IMERCSA then finalized the manuscript by incorporating comments and updating, review and edit.

We dedicate this work to you, the users.

Egline Tauya Head of SARDC IMERCSA August 2012

Design and printing was done by GRID-Arendal in consultation with SARDC, and GRID-Arendal also designed and hosts the

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Acronyms

AEIN ADBG AIDS AMCEN AU CBD CITES DDT DEWA FAO FAOSTAT GRID GWP HBS HIV IIED IMERCSA IPCC IUCN IWRM MDGs MGDS MICOA MICS NCCs PROBEC

Africa Environment Information Network African Development Bank Group Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome African Ministerial Conference on the Environment African Union Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane Division of Early Warning and Assessment (UNEP) Food and Agricultural Organisation (UN) Food and Agricultural Organisation Statistics Global Resource Information Database Global Water Partnership Heinrich Boll Stiftung Human Immunodeficiency Virus International Institute for Environment and Development I Musokotwane Environment Resource Centre for Southern Africa Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Union for Conservation of Nature IntegratedWater Resources Management Millennium Development Goals Malawi Growth and Development Strategy Ministry for Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey National Collaborating Centres Programme on Basic Energy Communities in Southern Africa River Basin Organizations Regional Strategic Action Plan Southern African Development Community Southern African Development Community--Water Division Southern Africa Environment Outlook Southern African Research and Documentation Centre

RBOs RSAP SADC SADC–WD SAEO SARDC SWI TFCA UNECA UNEP USGS WHO WWF ZACPRO 6.2 ZAMCOM ZAMWIS UNESA UNICEF

SharedWatercourse Institutions Trans Frontier Conservation Area United Nations Economic Commission for Africa United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Economics and Social Affairs

United Nations Children’s Fund United States Geological Survey World Health Organisation WorldWildlife Fund Zambezi Action Plan Project 6.2 Zambezi Watercourse Commission Zambezi Water Information System Zambezi River Authority Zambezi River Basin

ZRA ZRB

ix

“With water being the key resource to economic development and survival in this generally arid region, it is important that we don’t overlook the importance of the (Zambezi River) Basin as we try to satisfy the growing demands on water. Ensuring the long-term balance between demands and the resource base’s ability to meet these demands requires an integrated, coordinated and long-termmanagement perspective. We have to accept that supplying more and more water is not the only solution. We have to do with what we have. We simply have no choice. Managing demand for water and other resources is, therefore, critical to our long-term planning.”

State of the Environment Zambezi Basin 2000

x

© Gabriela Schaufelberger/iStockphoto.com

1

1 THE ZAMBEZI RIVER BASIN

The Zambezi River Basin drains parts of eight countries and is the most shared river system in southern Africa. The river basin is shared by Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Zambezi River and its dense network of tributaries discharge an average of 2 600 cubic metres per second (m 3 /s) of water, a rate in the same range as the Nile (2 830 m 3 /s) and the Rhine (2 200 m 3 /s) (Beck and Bernauer 2010). The basin has abundant water, fertile land and soils for agriculture and diverse habitats that are home to large populations of wildlife. This natural capital defines the basin’s economic activities which include agriculture, forestry, manufacturing, mining, conservation and tourism. The basin is also a centre for scientific monitoring and research.

2

© Teresa Guerrero/iStockphoto.com

3

Overview of the Zambezi

The Zambezi River flows over a distance of almost 3 000 kilometres, dropping in altitude from its source in the Kalene Hills in the north- western district of Solwezi in Zambia at 1 585 metres above sea level, to its delta in the Indian Ocean, 200 kilometres north of the Mozambican port of Beira (Chenje 2000).

southeastern Angola and northern Zambia onto a low-gradient area that forms the Barotse floodplain. From the Ngonye Falls, the river steepens, collecting water frommore tributaries, including the Cuando-Chobe River that drains southern Angola and Namibia’s Caprivi Strip. Three hundred kilometres downstream, the river drops a dramatic 100 metres forming the Victoria Falls and marking the beginning of the river’s middle section (Moore and others 2007).

The Zambezi River has tributaries along both banks, and these drain portions of eastern and

Africa major river basins

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

SENEGAL

NIGER

CHAD

Lake Chad

NILE

VOLTA

TURKANA

JUBA-SHABELLE

OGOOUE

I N D I A N O C E A N

CONGO

AT L A N T I C O C E A N

Elevation

Metres

ZAMBEZI

500 1 000 1 500 2 000 3 000

OKAVANGO

0 200 -200

LIMPOPO

-1 000 -2 000 -3 000 -4 000 -5 000 -6 000

ORANGE

Main river basin

Zambesi river basin

RICCARDO PRAVETTONI GRID-ARENDAL 2011

Figure 1.1 There are 63 transboundary river basins in Africa, covering 64 per cent of the continent’s land area (UNEP 2010). The Zambezi basin is the fourth largest in Africa after the Congo, Nile and Niger River Basins (Mukosa and Mwiinga 2008).

4

© Candice Bate, WWF

As it traverses its more than 3 000-km journey from the Kalene Hills, Zambia to the Indian Ocean, the Zambezi River takes various shapes, with some sections wide while others are narrow. The river also makes twists and turns, flowing through deep gorges and flat floodplains.

Zambezi River Basin

TANZANIA

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO

ZAMBIA

ANGOLA

MALAWI

Z a m b e z i

UPPER ZAMBEZI

LUANGWA

LUNGÚE BUNGO

KABOMPO

L u n g u e B u n g o

SHIRE RIVER & LAKE MALAWI/ NIASSA/NYASA

K a b o m p o

L u a n g w a

MOZAMBIQUE

C u a n d o

LUANGINGA

KAFUE

K a f u e

BAROTSE

MUPATA

S h i r e

TETE

Z a m b e z i

M a z o e

CUANDO/CHOBE

Elevation

1 000 1 500 2 000 3 000

KARIBA

ZAMBEZI DELTA

NAMIBIA

S h a n g a n i

100 200 500

BOTSWANA

ZIMBABWE

Metres 0

Figure 1.2 The Zambezi River Basin is located between 8–20° S latitude and 16.5–36° E longitude in southern Africa (Chenje 2000). It drains an area of almost 1.4 million square kilometres, stretching across 8 of the 15 member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

5

The Zambezi River has its source in a marshy bog near the Kalene Hills in Zambia. The Zambezi starts as a small river flowing along a granite dome. Located in Mwinilunga Province, the area around the Kalene Hills is largely used for farming and conservation. Good land use practices

© SARDC

6

have seen the area unchanged over the last decades with a predominant Miombo woodland vegetation type. The Miombo woodlands cover much of central and southern Africa, and are home to about 8 500 plant species, including 300 trees.

Below Victoria Falls, the gradient steepens sharply, the flow accelerates, rapids rise, and the river makes a series of sharp turns for several kilometres (Moore and others 2007). The river then widens forming the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. As it enters Lake Kariba the river expands dramatically (UNEP 2010).

Approximately 200 kilometres downstreamof the Kariba Dam, the Zambezi River enters Mozambique and flows into Lake Cahora Bassa. Below this, the gradient levels out again as the river crosses the coastal plain and is joined by Shire River. Below the confluence with the Shire River, the Zambezi crosses another area of floodplains before reaching the Zambezi delta and emptying into the Indian Ocean in Mozambique (UNEP 2010).

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The Victoria Falls marks the beginning of the middle section of the Zambezi River. The Falls are about 1 700 mwide, with a height ranging from 80–108 m. In mid-April when peak flood waters occur, about 625 million litres of water flow over the edge every minute.

8

Eight countries share the Zambezi River Basin area

TANZANIA

2.0%

ZAMBIA

MALAWI

ANGOLA

41.7% 18.4%

8.0%

MOZAMBIQUE

NAMIBIA

12.8%

1.0%

BOTSWANA

ZIMBABWE

1.0%

15.6%

Sources: Chenje, M. (Ed.) 2000. State of the Environment Zambezi Basin 2000. SADC/IUCN/ZRA/SARDC, Maseru/Lusaka/Harare

Figure 1.3 The Zambezi River Basin has 13 sub-basins, most of which are transboundary. The largest portion of the basin lies in Zambia, with smaller segments in Angola, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi in that order. Tanzania, Botswana and Namibia have less than three per cent of the basin each.

© Candice Bate, WWF

The Zambezi River at theVictoria Falls.

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Population

of the total, with urbanization steadily increasing. The basin’s population is expected to increase modestly, at the same rate as the national populations, as no substantial immigration into the Zambezi basin is anticipated. Population growth in the region has been moderate because the AIDS pandemic has had some impact on the reproductive age group (SADC and ZRA 2007). However, the situation is changing as the impact of HIV and AIDS is declining in most Zambezi basin states.

The population of the Zambezi River Basin was almost 31.7 million in 1998. This represented about one-third of the total population of 100 million in the eight basin countries at the time. Ten years later, in 2008, the basin population reached 40 million, with 7.5 million living in the urban centres (SADC and ZRA 2007). The total population of the eight countries of the Zambezi basin is expected to reach 168 million by 2025. The basin population is projected at 47 million, about 30 per cent

Table 1.1. Area and Population of the Zambezi Basin

Area of country in Basin  (sqkm)

Total National Population 2000 13 399 000 1 651 000 10 475 000 17 240 000 1 900 000 31 900 000 9 886 000 11 696 000 98 147 000

Projected National Population 2025 25 940 000 2 270 000 18 695 000 26 730 000 2 460 000 56 090 000 18 285 000 17 395 000 167 865 000

Popu- lation in the  Basin 1998*

2025 popu- lation (000) UNmedium projection 950 080 16 500 18 071 955 6 187 455 82 438 2 200 420 11 979 610 11 674 065 51 161 960

% of  National Population in Basin

Total area of country (sqkm) 1 246 700 581 730 118 484 799 390 824 290 945 087 752 614 390 759 5 659 054

As%of total area of country

As % of total area of Basin

Country

Angola Botswana Malawi Mozambique Namibia Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe Total

256 500 19 100 110 700 163 800 17 100 27 300

20.5 3.3 93.4 20.5

18.47 1.38 7.97 11.8 1.23 1.97 41.63 15.55 100

487 200 12 000

36.63 .073 96.67 23.15

9 821 400 3 991 870 60 890 1 271 920 7  046 250 9 050 000 31 741 530

2.1 2.9

3.35 3.92

577 900 215 800 1 388 200

76.8 55.2 24.5

65.52 67.11

Sources: Spatial data from Hirji et al. 2002, Deconsult 1998, SADC and SARDC 2008.

© ZACPRO

The livelihood of riverine communities is largely dependent on fishing.

Fishing village, Cahora Bassa.

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Gender Women and men play gender-specific role in all socio-economic activities including, agriculture, mining, fishing, hunting and gathering, forestry, tourism, recreation, crafts, transport, water resources development and environmental management. Men are generally responsible for attending political and social meetings as well as being responsible for hunting, fishing and animal husbandry. They also make decisions about what crops to grow, what land preparation procedures to use, when to harvest and howmuch produce to sell. In Zambia, 90 per cent of agricultural land falls under traditional authority, which is based on patriarchal principles of allocation. This is despite the existence of a clause in the 2002 Land Policy of Zambia, which aimed to allocate 30 per cent of land to women. There is no strategy to change customary law so that women can have both use and ownership rights to land. In 2002, the government of Zimbabwe also committed to allocating 20 per cent of land to women through resettlement, but implementation of this provision is weak (SARDCWIDSAA 2008). © Leonissah Munjoma © SARDC

Women are active and knowledgeable managers and caretakers of the environment. In many rural areas, women carry out natural resources conservation work, such as soil conservation and planting. In the urban areas, women take primary responsibility for the maintenance of clean living conditions for their families. While women constitute the majority of the agricultural workers in the region, and are mainly responsible for food production, their land rights are limited in all countries in the basin. Technology is used mainly for crops grown by men, and for the large part, men are the ones who receive Master Farmer training. They are also usually responsible for overseeing the family water and sanitation systems. Due to factors such as urbanization, gender roles have begun to change with women taking over decision-making positions that were previously dominated by men. In order for the basin and the rest of southern Africa to achieve its poverty reduction and eradication objectives, its policies and strategies should address the gender gaps that exist across southern African society (SADC and SARDC 2008).

Women are mostly responsible for cooking, tilling gardens, fetching firewood and water, and keeping small livestock such as goats. Women alsohave obligations, which fall within their domestic domain such as food preparation and childcare.

© Mukundi Mutasa

© P. Johnson, SARDC

Firewood is the most common energy source in the Zambezi basin’s rural areas.

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Land Cover and Land Use

Almost 75 per cent of the land area in the basin is forest and bush. Cropped land with mostly rain-fed agriculture covers 13 per cent of the land area, and grassland covers about 8 per cent of the land area.

Land cover and land use have great impacts on water resources, as they affect how precipitation translates into runoff, infiltration, evaporation, and the quality of the water (Hirji et al. 2002).

©Angel Herrero de Frutos/iStockphoto.com

Zambezi River Basin vegetation

TANZANIA

ANGOLA

MALAWI

ZAMBIA

ZIMBABWE

Dry evergreen forest Miombo woodland Mopane woodland Mosaic of deciduous forest and grassland Swamp/floodplain vegetation Coastal vegetation

MOZAMBIQUE

BOTSWANA

Moist evergreen forest and grassland Source: adapted from Timberlake, J. 2000. Biodiversity in the Zambezi Basin. Biodiversity Foundation for Africa. Bulawayo

Figure 1.4

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Biodiversity

Zambezian Biome The Zambezian biome covers 95 per cent of the basin, and comprises woodland, grassland, swamp and lakes (Timberlake 2000). The climate has distinct seasons with marked dry and wet seasons. This biome is sometimes subdivided into moister areas characterized by broad- leaved miombo ( Brachystegia ) woodland, and drier areas with mopane ( Colophospermum mopane ) and/or Acacia or wattle woodland. The Zambezi basin is home to more than 6 000 species of flowering plants, 650 species of birds and 200 species of animals (Timberlake 2000). In addition, 165 species of freshwater fish are recorded in the basin and more than 500 endemic species (mostly cichlids) in Lake Malawi/Nyasa/Niassa (SARDC IMERCSA 2003). Montane Biome The Montane biome lies between 1 800 and 2 000 metres above sea level. It is cooler, wetter, often shrouded in mist, and has a much more temperate climate. Species found in this biome include grassland herbs and introduced species such as pine and wattle trees (Chenje 2000). The Zambezi River Basin is rich in biodiversity and includes four distinct biomes; the Zambezian, Congolian, Montane, and Coastal (Chenje 2000).

© Antonio Klaus Kaarsberg

The Yellow Billed Stork is one of the many birds found in the Zambezi basin.

The Congolian Biome The Congolian Biome is within the head waters of the Zambezi in northwestern Zambia and northeastern Angola. The biome has a moister and warmer climate than the rest of the plateau portion of the basin. The vegetation and wildlife species are a mix of those found in the forested Congo Basin and in the less tropical, more wooded Zambezi basin (Chenje 2000).     Coastal Biome The coastal biome is the small part of the basin in Mozambique where climate is modified by proximity to the coast, the delta area and its

© Antonio Klaus Kaarsberg

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Lake Cahora Bassa has a storage capacity of about 63 000 million cu m upon completion of the dam. The lake started filling in December 1974. The inundation flooded a large area, and had caused a significant change to the surronding habitat. This almost resulted in the disappearance

species. Examples include the invasion of pines and wattle trees into the montane grasslands of Mt. Mulanje, the introduction of the Nile tilapia fish ( Oreochromis niloticus ) to the waters of the Middle Zambezi, and Kariba weed ( Salvinia molesta ) into the Chobe system and Lake Kariba (Timberlake 2000). Probably the greatest impact on biodiversity in the basin was due to dam construction. The Kariba, Cahora Bassa, Itezhi-Tezhi and Kafue dams (constructed from 1950 to 1970) changed hydrology, modified flooding cycles, and affected habitat and species composition.

immediate surroundings. There is no marked dry season, temperatures do not fluctuate greatly, and habitats include dry forests and grasslands. Most species found here are widespread along the East African Coast from Somalia to northern Kwazulu–Natal in South Africa. Threats to Biodiversity There are numerous threats to the basin’s biodiversity, including land clearance for agriculture and expansion of human settlement, dam construction, fires, and invasion by alien

© Antonio Klaus Kaarsberg

© Antonio Klaus Kaarsberg

Cahora Bassa is the second largest artificial lake in the Zambezi basin, after Kariba.

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of the Cape buffalo ( Syncerus cater ). Despite altering the Basin’s flood regime, and causing loss of wildlife, the lake strengthened access to clean energy, with an installed capacity of 2 075 Mw of hydropower.

© brytta/iStockphoto.com © Nick Greaves, APG

In Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe, the elephant population exceeds the countries’ carrying capacity, creating problems of overpopulation and destruction of habitats. For example, Botswana has 106 000 elephants in an environment with an estimated carrying capacity of 50 000. Large elephant populations negatively affect the recovery of the rhinoceros herd by preventing the animals from using grazing areas and gaining access to water points.

15

Water Resources

Luangwa and Luena flats cover an area greater than 2.6 million hectares (SADC and ZRA 2007). These wetlands are used for fisheries, agriculture, wildlife management, and transportation services.  The variations in flooding in areas such as the Zambezi floodplains, East Caprivi wetlands, Kafue Flats and Muzarabani district create the soils used to support the intensive agriculture that sustains communities living near them.

Water resources are essential for the social and economic development of the basin’s society, supporting industry, domestic water use, hydropower generation, irrigation, transportation and recreation. Wetlands Wetlands cover a large area of the Zambezi River Basin. For example, in Zambia the Kafue Flats, Lukanga swamps, Barotse flood plains, Nyambomba swamps, Cuando, Busanga,

Zambezi River Basin wetlands Zambezi River Basin wetlands

TANZANIA

TANZANIA

Z a m b e z i Z a m b e z i

Luangwa Floodplains Luangwa Floodplains

L u n g u e B u n g o L u n g u e B u n g o

K a b o m p o K a b o m p o

L u a n g w a L u a n g w a

MALAWI

MALAWI

C u a n d o

ZAMBIA

Lukanga Swamps Lukanga Swamps

ANGOLA

MOZAMBIQUE

C u a n d o

ZAMBIA

Zambezi Floodplains Zambezi Floodplains

K a f u e

ANGOLA

MOZAMBIQUE

S h i r e

Kafue Flats

K a f u e

Z a m b e z i Z a m b e z i

M a z o e

S h i r e

Kafue Flats

M a z o e

ZIMBABWE

S h a n g a n i S h a n g a n i

NAMIBIA

ZIMBABWE

BOTSWANA

NAMIBIA

Wetland type

BOTSWANA

Freshwater marsh Impondment RAMSAR site Freshwater marsh Impondment RAMSAR site

Sources: Denconsult 1998. ZACPLAN Sector Studies: Introductory Volume. Final Report. Southern African Development Community and Zambezi River Authority, Lusaka; Wetlands International 2011. Ramsar Sites Information Service. Accessed on 22 November 2011 from www.ramsar.org Sources: Denconsult 1998. ZACPLAN Sector Studies: Introductory Volume. Final Report. Southern African Development Community and Zambezi River Authority, Lusaka; Wetlands International 2011. Ramsar Sites Information Service. Accessed on 22 November 2011 from www.ramsar.org

Wetland type

Figure 1.5

© ARA Zambeze

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