The Contribution of Space Technologies to Arctic Policy Priorities

7. SOVEREIGNTY 7.1 National Boundaries 7.1.1 Overview

See sections 3.1 Marine Transportation, 3.2 Land Transporation and 3.3 Air Transporation above for further policy discussion. 6.3.2 Role of Satellite Systems WEATHER SYSTEMS (Impact Low) Access to reliable and timely satellite weather forecasts is important for effective and cost-efficient route planning for marine, land and air transportation to remote communities. For land transportation, the global climate has reduced the timeframe for access to ice roads in the Arctic thus making alternative route planning a necessity. In addition, the increase in snow accumulation in the region (caused by the greater amount of precipitation and moisture in the air that warmer temperatures bring) will increase the difficulties and costs of keeping roads open and accessible. For air transportation, weather forecasts can significantly impact cost effectiveness as route planning and scheduling is dependent on a clear understanding of current and future weather. For marine operations, the ability to predict and understand weather patterns is important to ensure the most timely and cost- effective route is selected. Specialized weather forecasts may also be necessary for off-shore drilling activities to ensure necessary operational efficiencies are implemented. The primary contribution of EO to improving the efficiency of transportation in the Arctic includes the monitoring and charting of sea ice covers. In particular, areas of open water within ice fields, as well as areas of thin, first-year ice constitute transportation corridors of choice in ice-infested waters. In addition to vessel traffic, EO is also useful as a navigation aid for individuals travelling on near shore ice, as well as on river and lake ice covers used as ice roads during the winter months. The systematic coverage of Arctic shipping routeswithoperational ice charts derived from wide swath imagery is currently limited to national territorial waters and exclusive economic zones. In the future, there is considerable potential to expand routine ice charting with full-resolution wide swath data to the entire Arctic basin. This will be particularly important considering the expected increase in Arctic vessel traffic over the coming years. In addition to operational ice charts, a need exists for localized ice products generated at higher spatial resolutions (e.g., access to specific ports or coastal installations). In this case, beam modes other than wide swath are available, down to resolutions between 1 and 3 meters provided by the most recent generation of SAR systems. For ice road applications, typically spatial resolutions used range from 10 to 30 m. NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (Impact High) Northern sea routes are expected to attract growing levels of ship traffic through the Northeast and Northwest Passage for numerous reasons (increasing accessibility due to reduced ice coverage, resource exploitation, tourism, etc.) thus resulting in a higher demand for GNSS for planning efficient transportation routes. EARTH OBSERVATION SYSTEMS (Impact High)

The national boundaries of most concern in the Arctic are the outer limits of national jurisdictions in the ocean. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides the framework for the governance of the world’s oceans. Once a nation ratifies UNCLOS, it has ten years to submit a claim to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) in order to establish the outer limits of the territory over which it claims jurisdiction (DFAIT, 2011). UNCLOS offers nations an opportunity to make a claim, or partial claims, for jurisdiction over areas that extend beyond the 200 nautical mile limit (i.e., the Exclusive Economic Zone or EEZ). A nation’s objective, therefore, is to define the outer limit of this area, called the “extended continental shelf”, using the rules for this purpose set out in Article 76 of UNCLOS. This is foremost a technical exercise involving a broad range of scientific disciplines and methodologies, depending on the article or articles within the Convention that will serve as the basis for a claim. Despite overlapping claims to the Arctic seabed, regional cooperation on issues pertaining to sovereignty and security has never been higher. Increased cooperation among Arctic states and the passing of the Arctic Council’s Search and Rescue Agreement demonstrate the concerted effort of countries relying on each other to prepare for increased interest and activity in the region. The adherence from each of the five Arctic coastal states to the peaceful resolution of overlapping claims through UNCLOS and the International Seabed Authority has curbed investment in military operations and strengthened cooperation on cross- border security areas like joint coast guard exercises. 7.1.2 Policy All of the nations with Arctic territories (i.e., Canada, Denmark/ Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the USA) have recently published strategies describing priority areas and policy objectives both locally and in the circumpolar Arctic region as a whole. Sovereignty features prominently in most of these documents. yy The UnitedNations Convention on the Lawof the Sea (UNCLOS) creates a unified regime for governance of the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of ocean space. It governs all aspects of ocean space including: delimitation; environmental control; marine scientific research; economic and commercial activities; transfer of technology; piracy, and the settlement of disputes relating to ocean matters. UNCLOS Parts II, V, VI, and VII establish the various regions of the oceans, who has sovereignty over each, and to what degree (e.g. for international navigation, submarine cables, exploitation of natural resources, installations and structures). yy Canada’s Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heritage, Our Future states that exercising sovereignty over Canada’s North is “our number one Arctic Foreign policy priority” (Government of Canada, 2009). Implementing this strategy includes defining Canada´s domain and advancing knowledge of the Arctic through the continued use of UNCLOS

CONTRIBUTION OF SPACE TECHNOLOGIES TO ARCTIC POLICY PRIORITIES 36