The Andean Glacier and Water Atlas

experience social exclusion; for example when various rights, opportunities and resources are less available or systematically blocked to persons or groups. In the Andean countries, indigenous people and rural communities have traditionally lived under lower standard living conditions and with lower levels of education, as well as lack of access to economic markets and political decision- making (Borsdorf & Stadel, 2015). This has also influenced their access to land, water and other resources. The marginalisation of indigenous communities continues to remain a challenge for several of the Andean countries, albeit there has been increasing awareness on the topic. In Bolivia and Peru for example, greater empowerment and autonomy of indigenous communities has been visible (Andolina, Laurie & Radcliffe, 2009; Borsdorf & Stadel, 2015: Martin & Wilmer, 2008). The Andes´ influence extends well beyond its own geographical range and contributes significantly to the GDP of the Andean countries. For example, apart from serving the needs of the millions of people in the region itself, water from the Tropical Andes is of crucial importance for at least a further 20 million people living downstream. Almost all of the major cities on the western Pacific slope of the Andes rely heavily on water and the energy produced from hydropower, which the Andes mountains provide (Devenish & Gianella, 2012). The Andes are vital as a

The social, economic and political reality of the Andean countries varies significantly, while there are also a number of common issues. The countries have experienced economic growth and poverty reduction during the last decades, but there have also been examples of serious setbacks as a result of national or global financial crisis. The economic disparity between the economically stronger and weaker Andean countries has continued to remain, and despite progress, poverty continues to be a core issue. The illicit drugs industry, as well as corruption remains high on the agenda of socio-economic challenges of the countries (Thoumi, 2002). Populations within the seven Andean countries have been steadily urbanising for decades, and the total urban population now ranges from 63.9 per cent in Ecuador to 91.8 per cent in Argentina (United NationsPopulationDivision, 2014). The reasons for theurbanisation are multifaceted, including poverty in the rural areas, temporarily or seasonal livelihood opportunities, and internal displacement as a consequence of insecurity issues (Castles, de Haas & Miller, 2014; Grau & Aide, 2007). Rural populations are also drawn to cities due to improved living conditions, which can include higher income, lower infant mortality and longer life expectancy (Grau & Aide, 2007).

Rural mountain communities (many of which are indigenous people), are often disproportionally poor and are more likely to

28