Outlook on climate change adaptation in the Tropical Andes mountains

mining, place additional stress on people and the environment, which increases their vulnerability. A new wave of extractive industries in the Andean region (e.g. large-scale, open pit mining) also poses challenges for local people and high elevation systems, including on water resources, livelihoods and social relationships (Bebbington & Bury, 2009). While several governmental policies have favoured rural and indigenous communities in Bolivia over the last decade, discrimination of ethnic minorities still constitutes a significant barrier to adaptation. The highest numbers of indigenous people in the Tropical Andes live on the steep valleys of the high sierra in central Peru and in the Altiplano. Among the many and diverse indigenous groups in the mountains, Quechua and Aymara are the largest. A significant proportion of these groups are small- scale farmers, who are particularly vulnerable to climate change. However, traditional ecological knowledge is a significant capacity for adaptation (Berkes et al., 2000). Thriving in some of the world’s most difficult environments demonstrates ingenuity and adaptability; capacities that are underutilized by society due to social structures, including poverty and ethnic discrimination. For example, a study showed that indigenous people living in the northern part of the Altiplano are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to poverty and lack of education (Valdivia et al., 2013). Furthermore, for many people, mountains and glaciers also have a deep cultural and religious significance. Due to sexist social structures, women often have fewer tools available for adaptation, such as access to education, financial credit and participation in local and national governance. Sexism and other forms of discrimination, such as racism and poverty,

combine to make many women in the high Andes particularly vulnerable to climate change. In a study on particular Aymara communities in the Altiplano, about 30 per cent of women and 10 per cent of men did not speak Spanish (Valdivia et al., 2013). This was partly due to unequal educational levels and access to external services. However, recent years have seen an improvement, as women become both more educated and more included in local decision- making. To succeed, adaptation policies must target such social barriers by considering the needs and opinions of women, especially in areas with high levels of emigration. Some social causes of vulnerability not only increase the vulnerability of the underprivileged, but also enhance the capacity of the privileged. For example, the overrepresentation of men in parliament could mean that their issues are given disproportional weight; and the entitlement of the rich is enhancing their adaptive capacity by reducing that of the poor. The representation of women in parliament differs substantially along the range, from Bolivia at 52 per cent and Ecuador at 42 per cent to the less representative 17 per cent in Venezuela, 20 per cent in Colombia, and 22 per cent in Peru (World Bank, 2015a). Multiple capitals and large cities are located in the Tropical Andes. Bogotá is the most populated, with approximately 9 million inhabitants. Other big cities include Medellín, Quito, Cusco, El Alto and La Paz. Sixty million people live on the range at between 1,000 and 4,500 m.a.s.l. About half of these live in Colombia. Bolivia is the country with the highest percentage of its population living in the mountains (90 per cent). Population growth and international and internal migration are key factors

in determining vulnerability to climate change. Migration (including temporary) often constitutes an essential element of adaptation for families and communities. Meanwhile, changes in land use, population growth and unsustainable exploitation of resources are, in combination with climate change, threatening the capacity of the Andes Mountains to provide ecosystem services needed in both the high- and lowlands. Urbanization and international migration, to both large and smaller cities in the region, affect migrants and those left behind. Migrants often receive increased wages, improving both their own situation and helping their dependents and community. Remittances from migrants play an important role in providing adaptability and resilience in rural communities, while migration from the mountains reduces strain on vulnerable ecosystems. On the other hand, emigration can erode local institutions and governance arrangements that influence access to resources. Emigration also leaves rural communities with a reduced labour force, and migrants often face significant difficulty establishing themselves in a new area. Dependency relationships with urban centres could also prove problematic if remittance levels were to go down. All countries in the region have high levels of urbanization and population growth. These trends will significantly increase and concentrate the demand for services and resources, which are already often threatened by climate change, such as water resources and agricultural goods (Buytaert and De Bièvre, 2012). Demographic trends and social challenges must be considered in combination with climate change to develop successful adaptation policies across all policy sectors.

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