Gender and Waste Nexus: Experiences from Bhutan, Mongolia and Nepal

Footnotes

women have for income-generating activities, education and rest. The total global average value of unpaid care and domestic work is estimated to be between 10 and 39 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP) and can surpass that of manufacturing, commerce, transportation and other key sectors. Unpaid care and domestic work supports the economy and often makes up for the lack of public expenditure on social services and infrastructure. In effect, it represents a transfer of resources from women to others in the economy (United Nations, Commission on the Status of Women 2017). On average, women carry out at least two and a half times more unpaid household and care work than men (United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women [UN-Women] 2018). 13. The draft strategy is planned to be completed by 2020. 14. Caste Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offence and Punishment) Act, 2068 (2011). 15. National Civil Code Act (2017). 16. Waste collection sites include households (door-to-door collection), streets, transfer stations, auctions and dealers (kabadi), among others. The waste collected includes household solid waste, industrial waste and demolition waste. 17. http://www4.unfccc.int/Submissions/INDC/Published %20Documents/Bhutan/1/Bhutan-INDC-20150930.pdf. 18. A dzongkhag is an administrative judicial district of Bhutan. 19. See for example https://www.prnewswire.com/news -releases/the-global-waste-management-market-was- valued-at-285-0-billion-in-2016--and-is-expected-to- reach-435-0-billion-by-2023--registering-a-cagr-of-6-2- -from-2017-to-2023--300639028.html. 20. See for example http://www.undp.org/content/undp/ en/home/sustainable-development/environment-and- natural-capital/chemicals-and-waste-management.html; Pokhrel, D. and Viraraghavan, T. (2005). Municipal solid waste management in Nepal: practices and challenges. Waste Management, 25(5), 555–562. https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15925764; Asian Development Bank (2013). Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Current Status and Policy Recommendations.

1. For example, Governing Council decisions 27/12, 26/3 and 25/8. 2. Fourth Session of the United Nations Environment Assembly, Nairobi, March 2019. http://web.unep.org/ environmentassembly/fourth-session-un-environment- assembly. 3. Documents UNEP/EA.4/L.8, UNEP/EA.4/L.9, UNEP/EA.4/ L.10 and UNEP/EA.4/L.7. 4. For the purpose of this study, gender mainstreaming is considered as the process of involving men and women in any planned waste management action in all areas and at all levels. This definition has been adapted from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) report on mainstreaming gender in UNDP, published in 2006. 5. Kathmandu refers to Kathmandu Metropolitan City. 6. The term gender neutral means “having no differential positive or negative impact for gender relations or equality between women and men”. What is often perceived to be gender neutral, however, often reflects gender blindness in practice, failing to address gender dimensions (Council of Europe, 2016). In the waste sector, gender is often not considered relevant, and waste management policies and practices are often regarded as having no differential impact on women and men. 7. Ministry of the Environment, Climate Change in Mongolia: OutputsfromGCM.https://www.env.go.jp/earth/ondanka/ pamph_gcm/gcm_mongolia_en.pdf. 8. http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published% 20Documents/Mongolia/1/150924_INDCs%20of%20 Mongolia.pdf. 9. Ibid. 10. Long, P. (2017). Mongolia’s capital copes with rapid urbanization. The Asia Foundation. 31 May. https://asia foundation.org/2017/05/31/mongolias-capital-copes- rapid-urbanization/. Accessed 28 June 2019. 11. In Mongolia, waste service providers are known as TUKS (Tohijilt Uilchilgeenii Kompani). 12. Time poverty is the accumulation of demands on women to support their households and families through unpaid labour. Spending time on unpaidwork reduces the time that

84 Gender and waste nexus