Gender and Waste Nexus: Experiences from Bhutan, Mongolia and Nepal

successful, with some exceptions, when collections fail to occur. The municipality and the private sector both manage waste. In 2014, the Government established a large public–private partnership with a Nepalese–Finnish joint venture. At present, the agreement involves the services of 65 waste management companies and is set to cover all municipalities throughout Kathmandu Valley. In Kathmandu, household waste is currently collected and delivered towaste transfer stations, where informalwaste pickers – working independently or together – select material of value. The remaining waste is then moved to the Sisdole sanitary landfill site, which is located 26 km from the city and remains operational, despite estimates suggesting that it would reach its capacity by 2008. The municipality manages the landfill, which receives deliveries of waste from open and covered trucks that travel over poor roads which deteriorate further in the monsoon season. The municipality operates 60 primary vehicles or small collection cars, as well as 20 secondary vehicles or large trucks that togethermake approximately 17 trips per day. Private companies that dispose waste collections at Sisdole landfill pay a tipping fee per truck. Valuable materials are then segregated for a second time at the landfill site. As of yet, official recycling systems, both public and private, are lacking. Most recycling occurs in the informal sector and is carried out by scrap collectors, dealers and traders. The rate of recycling is high and there is immense competition for secondary resources. In addition to scouring the transfer station and landfill site for recyclable material, informal collectors carry out door-to-door collections. The total population of Kathmandu is around 1 million people, a figure which is set to increase due to the country’s economic conditions, which are encouraging rapid urban in-migration. Some of the new arrivals find work in the informal sector. In Kathmandu, the traditional family structure of different generations living together as one household is slowly changing to a smaller nuclear family of wife, husband and children. Improvements in waste services should therefore consider these demographic changes. Social structures specific to Nepal set the context for its waste management practices. Ethnicity and caste affiliations determine particular roles in Nepalese society and have shaped the composition of waste occupations. Nepal’s numerous ethnic groups and castes have divided the population into complex hierarchical social structures that are deeply connected to the Hindi values of purity and impurity (Dahal 2014). While the number of caste and ethnic groups varies according to different sources, there are three distinct caste-origin groups: i) caste-origin Hill groups, ii) caste-origin Terai groups, and iii) caste-origin Newar groups (Dahal 2014). Within these groups, people

belong to different socioeconomic levels, high, middle or low, which determines their opportunities. Lower castes are often referred to as Dalits (the “untouchables”) and have high representation in the informal waste sector. Although caste-based discrimination was abolished in 1963, the practice is deeply ingrained within the culture and has continued to shape occupational and cultural structures (Wagle 2017). However, this is beginning to change and thanks to the support of the recent legislation on caste-based discrimination, 14 the gap between castes is slowly narrowing. Many individuals, mostly from the Newar (low) Pode caste, work in the waste sector, though this situation is changing and there is increasing representation of other castes in the waste sector. Gender context Although the Constitution of Nepal (2015) clearly envisions an inclusive State and equality for all, gender inequality remains high and a large proportion of the Nepalese population continues to face discrimination. In response,

Nepal

Young woman picking up recyclables at a transfer station. An interview with her co-worker revealed that a picker manages to collect about 50-60 kg plastic and 20 -30 kg of textile a day. Photo by Ieva Rucevska.

43 Gender and waste nexus