FROZEN HEAT | Volume 2

widely distributed in marine settings, where 99 per cent of the global inventory of hydrates is located, with the remain- ing 1 per cent being in the permafrost (Sloan and Koh 2008). Supporters of development point out that gas hydrates could provide a reliable, secure energy source for many countries without substantial conventional domestic energy resources. If increased natural gas consumption were to displace the use of other fossil fuels with higher greenhouse gas emissions, gas hydrates could be a transition fuel towards a more climate- friendly future. However, many policy challenges would have to be overcome. Efficient as it is, natural gas is still a fossil fuel that emits greenhouse gases. The time required for technology development and verification is expected to be several decades. Finally, substantial infrastructure investment would be re- quired to realize significant worldwide gas hydrate production. A number of internationally recognized tools are available to assess and monitor potential environmental issues related to resource extraction. These tools could be applied to production from gas hydrates – possibly with some modification. Currently available tools include the following: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an Environmental Impact Assessment as “the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made” (IAIA 1996). An EIA also involves an evaluation of the existing environment before development occurs. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) – The strategic environmental assessment is a relatively new tool designed to encourage dialogue among stakeholders at all levels. It aims to ensure that the policies and national plans related to resource extraction take other users of land, sea, air, water, and other shared environmental assets into account. An SEA is designed to be a transparent process involving all stakeholders – governmental, civil society, and private sector (DEAT 2007).

Photo: Yannick Beaudoin, GRID-Arendal

Box 4.1 Natural Systems and Environmental Assessment Tools

Ecosystem Approach to Management (EAM) – There is increasing recognition of the importance of an ecosystem approach to management (e.g., UNEP 2011). The 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines the ecosystem approach as: “Ecosystem and natural habitats management … to meet human requirements to use natural resources, whilst maintaining the biological richness and ecological processes necessary to sustain the composition, structure and function of the habitats or ecosystems concerned” (CBD 1992). The approach requires integration of information from a wide range of disciplines, across different levels of ecological and socio-economic organization, and on a range of temporal and spatial scales (CBD 2012). Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) – This approach is designed to manage multiple uses of marine areas. MSP maps which activities can be undertaken where, manages conflicts between competing marine activities, and reduces environmental impacts by analyzing current and anticipated uses of the ocean. It is a practical way to balance demands for development with conservation goals. The principal output of MSP is a comprehensive spatial management plan for a marine area or ecosystem (Ehler and Douvere 2009).

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