Droughts in the Anthropocene

Marshall Islands – Addressing water scarcity in a changing climate

In the Pacific Ocean, 29 low-lying coral atolls make up the Republic of the Marshall Islands, a picturesque paradise with sandy beaches and crystal-clear waters. However, the Pacific Islands are highly exposed to climate extremes such as droughts. The physical characteristics of the Marshal atolls – not rising higher than 3 to 4 metres above sea level – also result in limited freshwater reservoirs and sources of groundwater. This makes the Marshallese highly dependent upon rainwater as their primary source of potable water, which at times exposes the island nation to life-threatening challenges of water availability. Climate extremes are exacerbated and occur over extended timescales during phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which is one of the main drivers of drought events for the Pacific Islands [1]. ENSO takes place in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and is able to change the global atmospheric circulation, which in turn influences temperature and precipitation. It comprises a warm phase (El Niño), a cold phase (La Niña), and a neutral phase. During an El Niño event, rainfall is typically lower and ocean surface temperatures higher than average, and the frequency and amplitude of ENSO is expected to increase in the coming years due to climate change. Drought events are becoming an increasing reality for the Marshallese: the islands were hit by serious droughts in 1998, 2012 and 2016. The depletion of water resources became critical during these events, leading to states of emergency being declared. The droughts had a number of adverse social, economic and health impacts on the islands. The contamination of drinking water due to the drought conditions resulted in an increased number of diseases [1]. The droughts significantly impacted crop production and food security, which

affected the majority of the population as most Pacific Islanders either depend on or significantly supplement their diets with subsistence crops that they grow on their own land. This is particularly true of remote rural communities, but even in urban areas, fruit and vegetables are grown in household gardens. Efforts to retain traditional knowledge and practices and their value in the face of ongoing climate change have been important to increase people’s resilience in the face of water scarcity [2]. This includes food preservation practices, the harvest of wild foods and the production of multiple crops that can survive a range of extreme conditions. During the recent droughts, emergency desalinization units were brought in as a temporary solution to the water shortage, but on the remote outer islands, people had to rely on water from coconuts when water resources ran out. Although some limited freshwater groundwater lenses that can be utilized during periods of drought are available on the Marshall Islands, these become more saline as the drought persists. Furthermore, storm events and tidal surges associated with El Niño can wash over low-lying islands and contaminate freshwater lenses with ocean water. In addition, the rising sea level as a consequence of climate change threatens to reduce the size of the freshwater lenses on these atolls. The Pacific Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) project was initiated in 2004 [3]. Activities for the Marshall Islands focused on establishing an integrated water management and development plan for the Laura groundwater lens in Majuro Atoll, where 27,000 people (about half of the country’s population) live. The aim was to improve water resources management, reduce groundwater pollution and improve water

supply around the Laura area. Activities included provision of wastewater, sanitation, solid waste and recycling facilities; repair and maintenance of infrastructure for groundwater supply; water resource use planning and monitoring and the establishment of a Laura Lens Integrated Water Resource Plan [4]. Along with the improvement of groundwater management, the severe droughts highlighted the need to improve existing water storage capacity and develop alternative water resources. During the 2011 drought, activities were implemented to increase reservoir capacity and require rainwater catchment systems to be built into all new properties [5]. The Post Disaster Needs Assessment of the 2015–2016 drought for the Marshall Islands estimated that the drought resulted in economic losses of around US$4.9 million and a majority of the population experiencing a significant decline in the quality of life [2]. Although efforts have been promoted on the island as outlined above, the 2015–2016 drought highlighted the need to improve disaster risk management and national planning and financial capacity to build resilience for the people of the Marshall Islands. A key future requirement will be improved integration of traditional water and food security practices alongside other mitigation approaches in the face of rising ocean temperatures and sea levels.

ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

42