City-Level Decoupling-Case Studies

decisions and raise difficult questions, encouraging their commitment. 306 This involvement was so extensive as to be thought of as co-design. Most of the people involved were from the region, and were well acquainted with Linköping’s ecological, social and economic situation. Sufficient funds and a good measure of courage amongst decision-makers also helped the project come to fruition. 307 Despite strong political and social support, the project faced several challenges. Biogas production in Linköping was not considered profitable enough, so the company decided to expand regionally and also to supply to the private transport market. 308 The decision to expand was not unanimous, however, and Scan-Farmek and LRF sold their shares in the company to TVAB, which became the sole owner. 309 A focus on large-scale production plants meant that the opportunity to include small-scale biogas plants connected to a biogas grid was missed. This could have allowed greater coverage, reduced material handling costs and stimulated local economic development. 310 Although the project is a leading example of the ambitious use of renewable energy in the transport industry, infrastructure issues, vehicle limitations, and legislation continue to limit biogas development in the region. 311

Conclusion

The transition to a biogas public transport system has improved air quality for the citizens of Linköping. Co-operation between the city and local industries has helped to reduce waste and produce renewable fuel, while supporting local agriculture. The potential for a biogas grid powered by city waste products and the inclusion of smaller-scale production plants present significant opportunities for the expansion of sustainable transport in the city region.

30. Replacing Highways with Rivers: the Cheonggyecheon River Restoration Project in Seoul, Republic of Korea

By Natalie Mayer

Between 2003 and 2005, an elevated highway covering Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon River was demolished to improve the area’s environmental and aesthetic condition. Now a city highlight visited by 90,000 pedestrians daily, the restored river is a model for urban renewal projects worldwide. Throughout much of Seoul’s history, the Cheonggyecheon has been a polluted river prone to frequent flooding, particularly after the deforestation of the surrounding area to fuel economic development. 312 The response was to cover the problem, turning it into an arterial road in 1961. 313 The rapid urbanisation that followed prompted the building of an elevated highway above the covered river, completed in 1971. 314 In 2000, the Korean Society of Civil Engineering found that the road and elevated highway had severe structural problems that would cost approximately US$95 million to fix. 315 In addition, downtown Seoul was experiencing serious traffic congestion and poor air quality from the mass use of private vehicles, while public transport was in need of a thorough upgrade. 316 Urban ecosystems had

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