Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

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Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

interest in international tourism is also evident in these areas, with angling tourism an exclusive international product and cruise tourism under development. However, high prices and visa requirements may limit further development (Stammler andWilson, 2006; Pashkevich and Stjernström, 2014). 2.3.4 Energy The Barents Region is a major importer of energy resources, and transportation and parts of the industrial sector are heavily dependent on imported fossil fuels. In northern Scandinavia, refined oil products (such as gasoline, diesel and heavy fuel oil) are entirely sourced from outside the region, while industrial centers such as Luleå consume large amounts of coal and coke. In Finland and Sweden, black liquor from wood pulping and other wood residues is also an important source of industrial bioenergy production (FAO, 2008). Hydroelectric power in northern Norway is consumed locally, and the region imports hydrocarbon products from the offshore gas sector (Statistics Norway, 2009). In contrast, northern Sweden is a net exporter of energy due to its large hydro-electric installations fromwhich around two-thirds of electricity generated is surplus to local requirements. In 2008, the region exported about half as much energy (measured by heat content) as it consumed.Within the area, only about a fifth of gross energy consumed comes from electricity, with roughly equal shares coming from coal and coke, oil products, wood and biomass, and other sources such as waste heat (Statistics Sweden, 2008). In the Russian part of the Barents Region,Murmansk and Komi are energy abundant, while the Republic of Karelia and Arkhangelsk region are net energy importers (RIAReiting, 2015). Nationally, hydrocarbon (oil and gas) development constitutes a large source of state revenue in Norway and Russia, while also posing environmental concerns. The geological potential of the region, relative ease of access and relatively convenient conditions for exploration and exploitation, as well as proactive policies and granting of new licenses, and the experienced and technologically advanced companies already operating in the region may constitute a basis for large development potential in Norway. However, in Russia, national legislation focused on including foreign investors within the Russian company structure may limit development of technological capability. Large oil and gas fields exist off the coasts of northernmost Norway and north-western Russia, where declining sea ice makes further offshore development more attractive and makes possible access to markets through the Northern Sea Route. However, the reduced sea ice coverage has also resulted in increased volatility in weather phenomena (such as low pressure storms) and volumes of free ice have increased operating safety risk. Nonetheless, interest in the Barents Sea deposits has brought large investment in the Russian coastal areas. Much of the offshore development that has taken place has been dependent on the global energy market and close technological collaboration withWestern partners. Oil revenues also have local impacts, for instance contributing to considerably higher incomes in Yamal-Nenets and the Khanty-Mansii (the largest oil- and gas- producing regions) compared to other northern areas in Russia. Although the Russian government remains the owner of the resources, it can grant their usage to regional

Fennoscandia also has a well-developed road system as well as an extensive air access network, in addition to large shipping and historical supply routes along the Norwegian coast. However, air and rail transport in the Barents area is oriented towards the respective national capitals, or otherwise organized from the national point of view,limiting intra-region connections (Regional Council of Lapland et al., 2007). The EU has supported establishment of trans-European transport networks and corridors, for instance supporting current developments of high-speed rail and cross-national ferry lines. The EU systemalso has implications for the structure,condition and costs of the different modes of transport. For example, the EU Directive on sulfur in marine fuels (2012/33/EU) imposes limits under the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) that influence transport modes for goods shipped into and out of northern Fennoscandia (see Figure 2.13 for road, rail and shipping routes) due to potentially higher maritime transport costs for vessels crossing the Baltic Sea (an internationally designated control area for sulfur emissions). Outside of its direct jurisdictional influence, EU regulations can influence Arctic maritime transport through flag state authority (for Arctic-going vessels flying flags of EUmember states) or port state authorities (because many vessels crossing the Barents Sea call at EU ports). The relatively extensive infrastructure network that does exist, especially regarding north-south travel, has enabled mass tourism in some areas, although there is wide regional variability and areas lacking major attractions for tourists struggle to establish employment opportunities within tourism (Müller and Brouder, 2014). Urban destinations are now important nodes for meetings and conventions, and good accessibility compared with other northern destinations has led to the successful development of various well-known mass tourism destinations, such as the North Cape in Norway, the Ice Hotel and the iron ore mine in Kiruna in Sweden, the Santa Park in Rovaniemi and the alpine resorts Levi and Ylläs in Finland (Müller, 2011). The Natura 2000–protected Tornio River that constitutes the border between Sweden and Finland and its tributaries, is also a popular recreational destination with rich migratory salmon and trout stocks; and the Norwegian coastal steamer has become a tourist attraction in its own right. Commodification of winter, snow and ice has been an important precondition for establishing winter as a major tourist season and attracting visitors from increasingly urbanized and industrialized areas on the European mainland or Asia. Nature tourism is also helped by the Right of Public Access, which grants the public at large the possibility to visit nature areas, even on private property (Müller, 2011; Sletvold, 2006). The northern and easternparts of the RussianBarents Region and Barents area are much less developed in terms of infrastructure than the western and southern areas. The double track high standard railway as well as roads between St Petersburg and Murmansk are important routes. Paanaiarvi national park and fishing rivers are popular destinations in Russia, alongside the Murmansk region, which is a known skiing destination, and Arkhangelsk region, which attracts tourists through its historical importance. The Republic of Karelia is a summer vacation destination formany St Petersburg residents.Increasing

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