Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

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Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

Box 2.4 Differences between a Scandinavian and Russian model for societal organization This box outlines some of the major differences between a Scandinavian (or more broadly Nordic) and Russian model for societal organization, as reproduced and revised from the ECONOR reports (Duhaime and Caron, 2009; Duhaime et al., 2017). Despite this situation being one of constant change, not least in Russia, the material presented here does provide some background to the varying political assumptions and development tracks that are resulting in large differences between these countries (and between these countries and other northern areas).

oligarchy.According to the same two authors (Duhaime and Caron, 2009:20), “ This adversely affected the economies and social conditions of rural and remote regions in several ways: by shrinking the social safety net, by territorial reorganization leading tomarginalization of ethnic and indigenous minorities, through lower income and higher unemployment leading to higher infant mortality and reduced life expectancy ”. This withdrawal of the government as a producer and organizer is seen to have shifted class boundaries and eroded the social safety net and employment structure. They also noted that “ Industrial complexes, which in the past ensured basic social services (health, school, day care) shed these responsibilities when they were privatized ”, and regional and local authorities have been unable to replace them. The economic transition was thus accompanied by migration from northern to southern areas, where “[p] overty has been particularly severe among single-parent families and large families, among individuals with little education and those living in rural areas ”. Responses have included people increasingly cultivating land for self-sufficiency as well as the creation of small businesses to compensate for the withdrawal of the state. Thus,where Norway,Sweden and Finland express themature Scandinavian welfare state (albeit under globalization), the Russian state has buffered the impacts of economic and other changes to a much lower level. Understanding the graphics Figure 2.12 depicts socio-economic consequences using a set of indicators. The economic indicators are disposable income for households per capita (i.e. income after tax) and GDP per capita for each region (both measured in 2010 US dollars converted to Purchasing Power Parities, in order to compare consumption baskets in different countries).These indicators are supplemented by social indicators: population growth, ‘female rate’ (i.e. proportion of women in the total population, replacement rate (i.e. proportion of women of reproductive age to children from 0–14 years; a proxy measure for total fertility rate), demographic dependency (i.e. proportion of children and elders to adults in the total population), life expectancy at birth, tertiary education level, and economic dependency (i.e.proportion of non-employed to employed persons in the total population). In addition, infant mortality was recorded in regions where data were available, however, this indicator is no longer registered for the Arctic regions in Finland and Sweden, and so is not included in the graphic. To compare the indicators across regions, the indictors were scaled to a common format, presented as an index on a scale from1 to 10: where 1 represents the least favorable condition and 10 themost favorable condition for human development. The scaling method reflects that for some indicators, high

The ‘Scandinavian model’ as the redistribution mode of northern Europe, compared with the ‘new Russia’ A comparison suggests distinct patterns of socio-economic differences between the Nordic countries and the Russian regions of the Barents area.Norwegian, Swedish and Finnish regions of the Barents area have among the longest life expectancy in the world and the proportion of females within the population is close to the global average. In contrast, several of the Russian regions show a very different situation with the female rate far below the global average, and low rates of economic dependency.Among the Russian regions, Yamal-Nenets and Khanty-Mansii have highly favorable social conditions. GDP per capita in Yamal-Nenets is the highest, and several other indicators are also very favorable. However, while the levels of disposable household income per capita and GDP per capita are similar in resource-rich Russian regions and Nordic regions, the socio-economic situation cannot be considered equivalent. Indeed, given the same income, the Nordic standard of living is higher, because it is supported by generous redistribution and social benefits general to the countries, which support health care, education and other public expenses to a level that is not found in the Russian regions. According to two of the ECONOR authors (Duhaime and Caron, 2009:17/18), “ The Scandinavian model may be characterized by three distinct traits: a work-oriented approach for both men and women, universalism of social security benefits, and the importance of the State in the provision of social security and production of services, based on widespread redistribution of wealth through taxation ”. They also noted that the “ diversity of the economy, social policies for the redistribution of wealth, the vitality of citizen associations’have made it possible to so farmanage the impacts of global economic transformations and pressures ”. In northern Norway, Sweden and Finland, “ push factors for outmigration of women are to some extent counterbalanced by strong pull factors ”, such as employment opportunities for women in the public sector, and the fact that a more rural residence includes factors that are often perceived as part of “ a good life ”. It is also perceived that“ regional centers and villages attract immigrants ”,who do not perceive areas as “ remote ” in a negative sense, but rather “ appreciate the combination of beautiful landscapes, outdoor activities, and safety ” as well as existing urban elements.The ECONOR authors concluded that:“ These perceptions confirm the impression that northern or Arctic cities and villages in Nordic countries may have greater similarities with continental Europe than with North America or Russia ”. In contrast, the Russian transition after the end of the Cold War is described as characterized by large and overarching change including the extensive privatization of businesses and the creation of a powerful economic and political

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