Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

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Chapter 9 · Adaptation options

crew and transport sectors are particularly concerned about weather conditions around 0°C; whether ambient temperature is above or below 0°C makes a difference for safety and keeping roads clear (Hovelsrud et al., 2010b). Companies operating at sea or near shore are aware that managing icing conditions on installations and helicopters requires careful attention to weather forecasts and development of technology. Regulatory mechanisms,amendments and adjustments to existing standards and norms are being designed and introduced to help adapt to the changing environment. In Norway, a recent report outlines how the institutional responsibility for runoff water and urban flood risk should be organized (Norwegian Ministry of Climate and Environment, 2015). The Norwegian Energy and Water Directorate has assessed the risk on hydropower dams of the projected increase infloods (Midttømme,2015) and the impact of storm surges and sea-level rise on energy supply (NVE,2015).In Russia,the existingConstructionCodes are adding newstandards to reflect the current and projected changes in climate parameters including, frequency and amplitude of daily temperature fluctuations above and below 0°C,freeze-thaw cycles,snow load, and precipitation.These parameters are to be taken into account in the selection of constructionmaterials for buildings and roads and their durability and reliability characteristics (Alexandrovsky, 2004); attention to the particularities of the northern regions are taken into account (Uvarov,2012).Due to increased precipitation and intensity currently experienced especially during winter,the Construction Code “Loads and Stresses” (SNIP 2.01.07-85) was implemented in 2011,with stricter requirements tomeasure snow load (Roshydromet, 2014). More research and monitoring data are essential to adapt and develop reliable constructionmaterials in line with the future climate change scenarios projected for the Barents area. By way of illustration, Table 9.3 summarizes concerns regarding transport and infrastructure in the Finnish national strategy for adaptation. The Lapland climate strategy notes the impact of difficult weather conditions and the consequences for travel conditions (Regional Council of Lapland, 2011). While the Finnish attention is towards the Baltic Sea (harbors, marine traffic), it is also relevant for the Barents area in general. The Barents Transport Plan from 2013 addresses the consequences of climate change elements that are relevant for infrastructure, including increased precipitation, thawing permafrost,more frequent storm events,more frequent freeze- thaw cycles, more frequent and high-risk flood events and landslides. The report cautions that infrastructure managers must be aware of the threats and must develop the necessary adaptation strategies. It is noted that these adaptation strategies may be expensive to develop and maintain (BEAC, 2013). Many adaptation actions to reduce geocryological risk associated with permafrost thaw are being designed and implemented in the Russian north. They concern technical methods to reinforce buildings and infrastructure such as pipelines, railways, roads, and airport facilities. Measures to avoid or reduce permafrost thaw in northern Russia include thermo-stabilization (used since the 1960s).Thermo-siphons are installed to pump cold air into the upper layer of the

mineral resources and interest in extraction was driven by a sharp rise in the prices for gold,copper and iron (see Chapter 6). However, this has now reversed and low mineral prices in the period 2015–2016 have resulted in the industry declaring a mining crisis, with ‘boom’ being replaced by ‘bust’. One mine in Finnmark, Norway (Sydvaranger gruver) and one in Sweden (Pajala) have declared bankruptcy.As a result, Swedish mining experts are now calling for a more innovative industry. 20 Despite this recent development, new projects are still being approved. One in Finnmark is causing a major controversy with reindeer herders and coastal fishers (Dannevig and Dale, in press), again an added stressor for the regions’ primary industries. Higher temperatures and a shorter winter seasonwill result in new areas becoming available for exploration (Nelson and Schuchard, 2011; ICMM, 2013). These factors may also benefit the construction and operational stage of a mine (ICMM, 2013). For example, risk of increased temperatures causing heat exposure or the need for new technical cooling systems, is lower in the Arctic than in other mining areas under climate change. Concerns are emerging about environmental impacts on reindeer herding, tourism, local livelihoods and recreational use of nature as well as on ecology in the vicinity of the mine.These conflicts have also initiated discussion about food production versus the metal industry. 21 Climate change adaptation measures represent a relatively new area of consideration for northern business operations, at the same time they can draw on significant experience from operating in severe northern conditions (Kotov and Nikitina, 1996, 1998). In Russia, petroleum and mining companies operating in the Barents area have implemented adaptation projects (Makarov and Stepanov, 2015).Adaptive management options are applied in production and infrastructure located in permafrost zones, in coastal zones and on the continental shelf, and in technologies that are especially vulnerable to extreme events. In most cases these corporate actions are not necessarily labeled officially as ‘adaptations’, but nevertheless contribute to problem solving in this field. In some companies, such projects are becoming a component in corporate social responsibility and corporate sustainable development programs (Nikitina et al., 2015; Poussenkova and Nikitina, 2016). 9.3.2.8 Infrastructure and transportation Owing to their topography, climate and settlement patterns, some parts of the Barents area, such as northern Norway, are exposed to natural hazards such as avalanches, leading to road closures and the disruption of people, goods and services. Climate change is exacerbating such challenges for infrastructure through an increase in the frequency of landslides,mudslides and rockfalls, and snow and slush avalanches (NGI, 2013). Reliable and well-functioning infrastructure has become essential for the social and economic functioning of remote communities, because they often depend on commuting and the transport of goods and services to other areas. Infrastructural disruptions may have a long-term influence on regional labor markets, work commutes and settlement patterns in the Barents area. In Finnmark,northernNorway,studies show that roadmaintenance

20 http://uli-geoforum.se/nyheter/278-event/2582-kris-i-gruv-och-mineralindustrin-tid-for-gis 21 http://www.ifinnmark.no/matproduksjon-viktigere-enn-gruver/s/5-81-179420