Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

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Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

may choose to prioritize economic benefits and the added employees to the municipality provided by the industry over concern for indigenous culture. In these cases, a lack of knowledge production regarding the natural basis for indigenous culture, as well as a lack of methods for measuring the value of traditional marine use in relation to other use forms, leads to a systematic failure to secure the natural basis for Sami culture in marine areas (Brattland and Eythórsson, 2016). Because traditional use is not documented or gathered in relevant datasets and published under relevant categories in environmental databases, it is not readily available in decision-making processes regarding the use of marine space for aquaculture sites. In both local government coastal zone planning processes and in large-scale planning processes such as establishment of oil processing plants, the value of traditional use of space in principle also holds lower economic value than that of the incoming industry. Since there are few strategies in place for securing continued access for Sami communities to traditional use areas in the context of changing climate and increasing marine use activities, this poses challenges for indigenous communities’ future adaptation opportunities. If key use areas are already occupied by new industries facilitated by a changing climate, there will be fewer options for indigenous communities to adapt to a warmer climate and secure their traditional and changing land and marine use for the future. Increased production and integration of traditional use data in the environmental knowledge basis for management, as well as sound methods for traditional use valuation are thus of central importance to plan for Sámi land use in a warming northern climate. The material basis for Sámi pastoralists’ culture and livelihoods is access to seasonal pastures. But despite national and international laws that require Norway to recognize and protect the Sámi right to land (Reindeer Husbandry Act of 2007 and the ILO Convention 169 – ratified by Norway in 1990), it is unclear to what extent customary land use is protected against encroachment (Einarsbøl, 2005; Bjørklund, 2013). According to Ravna (2015), the legal protection of Sámi rights to natural resources and lands in Norway is not adequate. Reindeer herders all over Norway face increasing pressure from infrastructure development on their pastures; for example, from military activities, snow-mobile tourism, agriculture, wind power and hydropower, development of new areas for recreational homes, and mineral exploration and mining. In 2008, the State established the Finnmark Commission to investigate individual and collective rights of the people of the county (Sámi and non-Sámi) to land and water. However, the investigations are slow and only four areas have so far been examined (Skogvang, 2014). In addition, the Finnmark Commission has yet to recognize actual land and water areas to which Sámi have acquired use or ownership rights (Ravna, 2015). Furthermore, as shown by Johnsen (2016a) the standard procedure for assessing impact and the cost/benefit of land-use change is not adequate to understand the domino and cumulative effects of development projects on reindeer husbandry, or the project’s consequences for the unsettled land rights of the pastoralists. Turi and Eira (2016) 7.2.2.2 Reindeer husbandry and its governance in Sápmi

situation of Sámi differs between the three Nordic countries – for example the annual budget of the Norwegian Sámi Parliament for 2010 was USD 54.4 million compared to USD 2.2 million in Finland. Despite the broad trends towards indigenous self-determination the practice of traditional livelihoods such as hunting and herding in Scandinavia is controlled by (in general) various Ministries of the State. In Russia, the interests of indigenous peoples are represented from the regional to federal level by the Russian Association of the Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), which was founded in 1990. RAIPON is an umbrella organization that organizes 35 regional and ethnic organizations of indigenous peoples in the regions where they live and represents 41 groups of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East. The purpose of RAIPON is to protect indigenous peoples’ human rights, defend their legal interests, assist in solving environmental, social, economic, cultural and educational issues, and to promote their right to self-governance. RAIPON works with the State Duma and the Government of the Russian Federation on legislation related to indigenous peoples’ issues. 7.2.2.1 Key challenges for coastal Sámi in Norway Conflict between fish farming and traditional and coastal Sámi fisheries is a contentious issue due to spatial competition and disputes over the impacts of fish farms on the marine environment, particularly local fish stocks.With a changing climate, northern waters are becoming more attractive for the aquaculture industry. The current policy of the Norwegian government is to expand the use of marine areas for aquaculture purposes, with the aim of making this one of the main industries in the north. Aquaculture is currently seen as more sustainable in northern waters than elsewhere, partly owing to the reduced occurrence of disease and sea lice in Atlantic salmon pens. However, spatial conflicts and environmental effects on Sámi and other local marine fisheries are pressing and unresolved issues following the northwards aquaculture expansion. Norwegian authorities are required to include experience-based or traditional knowledge in environmental management,as well as basing decisions on the best available scientific knowledge (Nature Diversity Act, §8). According to central legislative measures, management authorities are also required to take into account concern for the “natural basis for Sámi culture” in municipal planning, including planning of activities in the coastal zone (Planning and Building Act, §3-1). The policy of the Norwegian Sámi Parliament is to secure enough space for traditional fisheries in coastal zone plans, and the Sámi Parliament has the power to intervene on plans that do not fulfill the above mentioned requirements. In many cases, local governments cooperate well with the Sami Parliament and are able to incorporate experience-based knowledge and due regard for traditional marine usage in their coastal zone plans. Regional authorities also generally take into account the Sámi Parliament’s objections in cases of conflict, and make sure that the legislation is followed by local governments and industries. However, in cases of conflict over marine areas that are desired by the aquaculture industry and which are traditionally used by indigenous communities, local (municipal) governments