Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

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Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic: Perspectives from the Barents Area

Higher temperatures and drought are responsible for increased wildfire risk in the Barents area. For example, the number and size of the areas affected by wildfires in Arkhangelsk County have both increased over the past ten years. City dwellers in the Barents area are expected to experience increasing health problems through significantly higher levels of air pollution, especially concerning microscopic atmospheric particles (such as PM 10 ) (Revich and Shaposhnikov, 2012). Many different factors represent a risk to future sustainability, especially for small rural communities. The combined effects of these factors create the need for good community-based adaptation planning.It is therefore important that communities in the Barents area develop monitoring and adaptation strategies to meet these risks, for the marine, terrestrial and freshwater environments. 6.3.1. Primary industries Primary industries and livelihood activities are particularly sensitive to cumulative impacts, of which climate change is but one. The consequences of their combined impacts vary along multiple dimensions. It is therefore necessary to consider the interaction between the different drivers of change and the multiple stressors when assessing consequences for society. 6.3.1.1 Herding, hunting, fishing and gathering Herding, hunting, fishing, and gathering are strongly related to the northern identities in the Barents area. These widespread activities represent sources of monetary income and have cultural, social, economic, recreational and dietary value (Nuttal et al., 2005; Larsen and Fondahl, 2014, Chapters 2, 7 and 9). Culture is both affected by the associated impacts of climate change on livelihoods and is a significant resource for addressing the consequences. Globalization and a continuous quest for Arctic resources (petroleum, minerals, wood), infrastructural development, development of hydropower and wind parks, peat harvesting, and tourism (see Chapter 2) have caused fragmentation of the land used as the basis for the traditional and recreational activities and lifestyles in the Nordic countries (Jaakkola et al., 2013; Herrmann et al., 2014; Skarin et al., 2015). In Russia (NenetsAutonomous Okrug (AO) andYamalo-NenetsAO),the oil and gas industry has had significant local impacts on pasture land and reindeer herding, by disrupting reindeer migration routes with roads and pipelines. Rapid industrial development and associated social change are major concerns in theYamalo- Nenets AO (Forbes and Stammler, 2009). Warmer and wetter winters have impacted reindeer herding by reducing the availability of pastures and increasing reindeer mortality in the Nordic countries (Tyler et al., 2007; Vuojala-Magga et al., 2011), Svalbard (Hansen et al., 2014) and Russia (Forbes and Stammler, 2009; Bulgarova, 2010) (see Chapters 7 and 9). In addition to several land- use factors, high long-term grazing pressure combined with lack of or poor seasonal pasture rotation have significantly 6.3 Societal and economic change

Food costs in the Arctic are high, comprising 23–43% of household income in the RussianArctic (Dudarev et al., 2013), and climate change means many wildlife species consumed as country foods have disappeared (Huntington and Fox, 2005). This is a particular issue for indigenous peoples who are tightly linked to the environment through their traditional consumption of local subsistence foods. It is also well known that indigenous communities are highly exposed to certain contaminants through their traditional subsistence diet (UNEP/ AMAP, 2011; Larsen et al., 2014). High levels of cadmium, nickel and copper have been found in mushrooms and nickel in wild berries in the Pechenga region (Dudarev et al., 2013). Elevated levels of dioxins and PCBs have been measured in the meat of reindeer calves grazing natural pastures in Finland (Holma-Suutari et al., 2014). If communities are forced to abandon traditional hunting or fishing due to climate impacts or due to contamination of subsistence foods, this will increase their dependency on store-bought foods which are often expensive and less healthy, in turn increasing the incidence of modern diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dental problems, and obesity (Armitage et al., 2011; Brubaker et al., 2011; Larsen et al., 2014). Household water in six cities of the Murmansk region (Nikel, Zapolyarny, Olenegorsk, Montchegorsk, Apatity, Kirovsk) contains high levels of heavy metals. Studies also show that some cities in this region lack sanitary protection zones for water sources and that most cities require preliminary water processing; water disinfection involves only chlorination (Dushkina and Dudarev, 2015). High levels of aluminum have been found in drinking water in Kirovsk and nickel in Zapolarny and Nikel. Water taken from springs in the Pechenga region contained relatively low levels of metals, except for strontium and barium (Dushkina and Dudarev, 2015). Across the Arctic as a whole, including the Nordic countries the greatest concern is an increase in waterborne infections (Parkinson et al., 2014). Climate-change related impacts include an increasing number of days with extreme temperatures and anomalous cold spells and heat waves, in addition to more frequent floods and storms (Revich, 2008; Revich and Shaposhnikov, 2012) associated with a higher risk of flooding capable of destroying infrastructure (building, roads, bridges, ferries, waste systems). This could lead to difficulties in ensuring safe or dependable transportation, security of food and drinking water, and the provision of critical services and medical aid. People may be forced to leave some areas due to infrastructure problems (AMAP, 2015a). There are some positive effects of climate change, such as fewer cold-related deaths in some areas (Revich, 2008). However, if temperatures rise substantially, some population groups considered to be at particular risk, such as children and the elderly, may experience health difficulties (such as breathing, excessive sun exposure, skin disease). In northern Sweden, a 1°C increase in temperature in the period 1991– 2007 led to a steep rise in the number of cases of non-fatal heart attacks (the Northern Sweden MONICA Project) (Eriksson et al., 2011).

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